The present PhD dissertation investigated several aspects of atmosphere-wildland fire interactions by utilizing an online coupled atmosphere – fire numerical model (WRF-SFIRE), which is a combination of a numerical weather prediction (NWP) model with a semi-empirical numerical fire spread model. Subsequently, this PhD dissertation exploited the capabilities of WRF-SFIRE modelling system across several spatial scales, from mesoscale analysis on fire weather conditions during high-impact fire events in Greece to microscale analysis on highly idealized experiments, in Large Eddy Simulation (LES) mode. Additionally, this manuscript addressed the performance of the coupled model by utilizing a number of surface observational data from the Hellenic National Meteorological Service (HNMS) and several EO data from the Meteosat second generation (SEVIRI), SENTINEL-2 (MSI), Aqua, Terra (MODIS) and Suomi-NPP (VIIRS) satellites, respectively.
The first study investigated the influence of the released heat fluxes from a surface fire on its characteristics (e.g. rate of spread, fire area), flow dynamics in the vicinity and plume properties. Specifically, the role of the extinction depth or e-folding depth parameter, zex (the height at which the fluxes are equal to 36% of their initial value), was assessed throughout eight highly idealized experiments, which were performed in LES mode. Results indicated that the choice of the zext parameter not only affected the vertical distribution of the fluxes but also the amount of the released energy from the surface fire. The higher the zext value, the higher the percentage of the released energy that resided on the first theta model level. Moreover, the calculated burn probabilities revealed that under identical initial atmospheric conditions but different e-folding depths discrepancies might occur in the resulted fire area. The coupled model was able to reproduce certain flow characteristics such as the convergence region ahead of the fire front and the descending rear inflow to the updraft’s base, in all experiments albeit structural differences were observed. In general, an increase of the zext parameter led to weaker time-averaged potential temperature anomalies both close to the ground and in the top of the convective plume. However, the temporal peaks in theta anomalies did not follow any linearity and their occurrence varied both in time and space. The analysis on near surface dynamics revealed discrepancies in the patterns and the magnitude of vertical vorticity and divergence fields, in the shape of the fire perimeter and the location of the fire head between the experiments. Low e-folding depth values produced more organized and intense counter-rotating vertical vorticity pairs and regions of vorticity along the fire flanks and in front of the active fire head, whilst in the sensitivities with zext greater than 50 m, this vorticity was less organized and more transient. The vorticity equation budget analysis showed that the solenoidal term was up to twelve orders of magnitude less than the other terms. The horizontal advection of vertical vorticity contributed the most to the increase of vorticity, while the tilting/twisting term was dominant at the early stages of the fire, where the ambient shear-generated horizontal vorticity, ωy, was oriented into vertical due to buoyant gradients from the surface fire.
The second study analyzed the prevailing weather conditions on 23rd of July 2018, assessed the performance of the WRF-SFIRE modelling system, investigated the role of the complex terrain to the mean flow and fire behavior and examined the uncertainty of ignition features during two high-impact fire events that occurred in Attica Region, Central Greece (Mati and Kineta fire events). The synoptic analysis revealed the presence of a positively tilted trough over the Central Mediterranean, moving eastwards and interacting with the subtropical jet, resulting in a strong westerly flow over Greece. The AWS in Penteli Mt. recorded gusts reaching 25 m s-1 between 1230 and 1430 UTC, while several HNMS surface stations in the wider area recorded wind gusts exceeding 20 m s-1 between 1200 and 1730 UTC. The coupled model validated in terms of temperature, relative humidity and wind speed against the available HNMS surface observations by applying the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) method, the Gressman method and a 4-grid point method. Although the model performed satisfactory, the air temperature (2 m) and wind speed (10 m) were overestimated, whilst the relative humidity (2m) was underestimated. The predicted fire perimeters were in satisfactory agreement with the observed ones, but there were time lags in the initial development of the fires’ momentum and subsequently discrepancies on the temporal evolution of the modeled fires occurred. Moreover, simulations revealed the presence of induced orographic waves, paths of high winds on the lee-slopes, transient resemblance of a hydraulic jump downstream of Penteli Mt., while indicated a downward transport of energy and momentum during the maximum wind speed occurrences. The turbulent and dynamically unstable conditions on the lee-slopes of Gerania Mts. (Kineta) and Penteli Mt. (Mati) contributed to the flow kinetic energy, while vorticity provided additional forcing into the fire spread rates. Quite different influences of topography in each fire event were found, where the isolated Gerania Mts contributed to warmer, drier and windier conditions leeward, while Penteli Mt. had a lesser impact on atmospheric variables downstream. In addition, the sensitivity experiments showed that the type of ignition along with the rate of spread during ignition influenced the most the fire propagation at the early stages of the fire at Mati event. Finally, fuel description had a lesser impact on the simulated rate of spreads during the early stages of the fire but influenced its behavior later.

Η παρούσα Διδακτορική Διατριβή διερεύνησε τις αλληλεπιδράσεις ατμόσφαιρας – πυρός με τη βοήθεια ενός άμεσα συζευγμένου αριθμητικού μοντέλου (WRF-SFIRE), το οποίο αποτελεί συνδυασμό ενός αριθμητικού μοντέλου πρόγνωσης καιρού με ένα ημι-εμπειρικό μοντέλο διάδοσης του πυρός. Η αξιοποίηση των δυνατοτήτων του εν λόγω συστήματος επέτρεψε την ανάλυση των αναδράσεων ατμόσφαιρας-πυρός σε διαφορετικές χωρικές κλίμακες, από τη μέση κλίμακα και κατά τη διάρκεια πυρκαγιών με ακραία συμπεριφορά στον Ελλαδικό χώρο, έως τη μικροκλίμακα, μέσα από ιδεατά πειράματα με τη τεχνική Large Eddy Simulation (LES). Επιπρόσθετα, ελέγχθηκε η απόδοση του αριθμητικού συνδυασμού σε σύγκριση με παρατηρησιακά δεδομένα επιφανείας από την Εθνική Μετεωρολογική Υπηρεσία (ΕΜΥ) και δεδομένα τηλεπισκόπησης από τους δορυφόρους Meteosat (SEVIRI), SENTINEL-2 (MSI), Aqua, Terra (MODIS) και Suomi-NPP (VIIRS).
Στο πρώτο μέρος της ερευνητικής διεργασίας μελετήθηκε η επίδραση των εκλυόμενων ροών θερμότητας του πυρός στις ιδιότητές του (ρυθμός διάδοσης, καμένη έκταση κτλ.) και στα χαρακτηριστικά της ατμοσφαιρικής ροής και της επαγωγικής στήλης θερμότητας (πλούμιο), αντίστοιχα. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, εκτιμήθηκε ο ρόλος της παραμέτρου heat extinction depth ή e-folding depth (zex , ύψος στο οποίο οι ροές θερμότητας αποκτούν το 36% της αρχικής τους τιμής), μέσα από οχτώ ιδεατά αριθμητικά πειράματα, τα οποία πραγματοποιήθηκαν με τη μέθοδο LES. Σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα, η τιμή του zex επηρέασε την καθ’ ύψος κατανομή των εκλυόμενων ροών αλλά επίσης και την ποσότητα της εκλυόμενης ενέργειας που «εισχωρεί» στο ατμοσφαιρικό μοντέλο. Όσο μεγαλύτερη ήταν η τιμή του zex τόσο μεγαλύτερο υπήρξε και το ποσοστό της ενέργειας που ήταν διαθέσιμο στο πρώτο θ επίπεδο του μοντέλου. Επιπρόσθετα, διαφορετικές τιμές zex κάτω από ίδιες αρχικές ατμοσφαιρικές συνθήκες είχαν ως αποτέλεσμα διαφορετικές καμένες περιοχές (σχήμα και έκταση). Αν και παρατηρήθηκαν διαφορές τόσο στη δομή όσο και στην ένταση τους, ο αριθμητικός συνδυασμός αναπαρήγαγε συγκεκριμένα χαρακτηριστικά της ατμοσφαιρικής ροής, όπως τη ζώνη σύγκλισης μπροστά από το μέτωπο και την εκ των όπισθεν καθοδική εισροή αέρα προς τη βάση της επαγωγικής στήλης θερμότητας σε όλα τα πειράματα. Εν γένει, η αύξηση της παραμέτρου zex οδήγησε σε μικρότερες χρονικά-μέσες ανωμαλίες της δυνητικής θερμοκρασίας, κοντά στο έδαφος αλλά και στην κορυφή του πλουμίου. Ωστόσο, τα μέγιστα των ανωμαλιών αυτών δεν ακολούθησαν κάποια γραμμικότητα και η εμφάνισή τους διέφερε χωρο-χρονικά ανάμεσα στα πειράματα. Όσον αφορά τα δυναμικά χαρακτηριστικά της ροής, διαφορές παρατηρήθηκαν τόσο στην ένταση όσο και στα μοτίβα της κάθετης συνιστώσας του στροβιλισμού (οριζόντιος στροβιλισμός) και της απόκλισης κοντά στην επιφάνεια, επηρεάζοντας το σχήμα της καμένης έκτασης και τη θέση της κεφαλής. Μικρές τιμές του zex  οδήγησαν στην παραγωγή περισσότερο οργανωμένων και ενισχυμένων ζευγών στροβίλων, κυκλωνικής και αντικυκλωνικής φοράς αντίστοιχα, περιοχών έντονου οριζόντιου στροβιλισμού (θετικού ή αρνητικού) κατά μήκος των πλευρικών ορίων και έμπροσθεν της κεφαλής. Αντιθέτως στα πειράματα όπου η τιμή του zex  ήταν μεγαλύτερη των 50 m, ο οριζόντιος στροβιλισμός ήταν λιγότερο οργανωμένος και παροδικός. Ο όρος του σωληνοειδούς στην εξίσωση του στροβιλισμού (οριζόντιος) βρέθηκε έως και δώδεκα φορές μικρότερος σε σύγκριση με τους υπόλοιπους όρους, ενώ ο όρος της οριζόντιας μεταφοράς συνείσφερε θετικότερα στην αύξηση του οριζόντιου στροβιλισμού. Ο όρος της κλίσης/συστροφής βρέθηκε μεγαλύτερος κατά τα πρώιμα στάδια της φωτιάς, όπου η παραγόμενη λόγω κατακόρυφης διάτμησης του ανέμου, ψ συνιστώσα του στροβιλισμού προσανατολίστηκε κατακόρυφα εξαιτίας της έντονης ανωμεταφοράς από την φωτιά επιφανείας.
Στο δεύτερο μέρος της ερευνητικής διεργασίας πραγματοποιήθηκε η συνοπτική ανάλυση, παρουσιάστηκαν οι επικρατούσες ατμοσφαιρικές συνθήκες στην επιφάνεια, διερευνήθηκε η επίδραση της τοπογραφίας στη μέση ροή και στη συμπεριφορά του πυρός και ελέγχθηκε η επίδραση των παραμέτρων της ανάφλεξης (τοποθεσία, χρόνος, είδος) στη καμένη έκταση, κατά τη διάρκεια των γεγονότων της 23ης Ιουλίου 2018, όπου εκδηλώθηκαν δύο πυρκαγιές με ακραία συμπεριφορά, σε Δυτική (περιοχή Κινέτα) και Ανατολική (περιοχή Μάτι) Αττική. Σύμφωνα με τη συνοπτική ανάλυση, η παρουσία ενός αυλώνα στην ανώτερη τροπόσφαιρα με θετική κλίση πάνω από την Κεντρική Μεσόγειο, η κίνησή του προς τα ανατολικά και η αλληλεπίδρασή του με τον υποτροπικό αεροχείμαρρο, οδήγησαν σε έντονη δυτική κυκλοφορία πάνω από τον Ελλαδικό χώρο. Ο αυτόματος μετεωρολογικός σταθμός στο Πεντελικό Όρος κατέγραψε ριπαίο άνεμο έως 25 m s-1, μεταξύ 1230 και 1430 UTC, ενώ αρκετοί σταθμοί επιφανείας (συνοπτικοί και δευτερεύοντες) της Εθνικής Μετεωρολογικής Υπηρεσίας (ΕΜΥ), στην ευρύτερη περιοχή της Αττικής, κατέγραψαν ριπές ανέμου μεγαλύτερες των 20 m s-1, μεταξύ 1200 και 1730 UTC. Ο αριθμητικός συνδυασμός αξιολογήθηκε ως προς την θερμοκρασία και υγρασία του αέρα και την ταχύτητα του ανέμου με βάση τα δεδομένα των σταθμών επιφανείας της ΕΜΥ, χρησιμοποιώντας τις μεθόδους χωρικής παρεμβολής Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), Gressman και 4-grid point. Η απόδοση του κρίθηκε ικανοποιητική, αν και βρέθηκε να υπερεκτιμά τη θερμοκρασία στα 2 m και τη ταχύτητα του ανέμου στα 10 m, και να υποεκτιμά τη σχετική υγρασία στα 2 m. Η προσομοίωση της καμένης έκτασης και στα δύο γεγονότα υπό μελέτη ήταν σε σχετική συμφωνία με τη εκάστοτε πραγματική, ωστόσο και στις δύο περιπτώσεις υπήρξε καθυστέρηση στην ανάπτυξη της δυναμικής τους, με αποτέλεσμα να προκύψουν διαφορές ως προς την εξέλιξή τους χρονικά. Επιπλέον, η ανάλυση των αποτελεσμάτων της αριθμητικής προσομοίωσης υπέδειξε την παρουσία επαγόμενων κυμάνσεων λόγω ορεογραφίας στην ευρύτερη περιοχή, μονοπάτια ατμοσφαιρικής ροής μεγάλης ταχύτητας στα υπήνεμα των ορεινών εμποδίων, παροδική εμφάνιση χαρακτηριστικών ενός τυρβώδους υδραυλικού άλματος στα κατάντη του Όρους Πεντέλη και κατακόρυφη μεταφορά ενέργειας και ορμής προς τα έδαφος, κατά τη διάρκεια εμφάνισης των μέγιστων ταχυτήτων ανέμου. Η τύρβη και οι δυναμικά ασταθείς συνθήκες στα υπήνεμα των Γεράνειων Ορέων (περιοχή Κινέτα) και του Πεντελικού Όρους (περιοχή Μάτι) συνέβαλαν στην αύξηση της κινητικής ενέργειας της ροής, ενώ το πεδίο του στροβιλισμού εισήγαγε επιπλέον δυναμικό εξαναγκασμό στους ρυθμούς εξάπλωσης των πυρκαγιών. Η επίδραση της ορεογραφίας στην εκάστοτε πυρκαγιά βρέθηκε διαφορετική καθώς, η παρουσία των απομονωμένων Γεράνειων Ορέων οδήγησε σε θερμότερες και ξηρότερες συνθήκες, με ισχυρότερες ταχύτητες ανέμου στα κατάντη, ενώ το Όρος Πεντέλη είχε μικρότερη επίδραση στις ατμοσφαιρικές συνθήκες στην υπήνεμη πλευρά. Επιπλέον, τα πειράματα ευαισθησίας έδειξαν πως ο τύπος ανάφλεξης στο πυρικό μοντέλο μαζί με το ρυθμό εξάπλωσης κατά την ανάφλεξη επηρέασαν περισσότερο την εξάπλωση του πυρός κατά τα πρώτα στάδια της πυρκαγιάς στο Μάτι, σε σχέση με τις άλλες υπό διερεύνηση παραμέτρους. Τέλος, η κατηγοριοποίηση της καύσιμης ύλης δεν επηρέασε τόσο τους ρυθμούς εξάπλωσης κατά τα πρώτα στάδια της πυρκαγιάς όσο αργότερα.

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